From: Temporal changes and determinants of childhood nutritional status in Kenya and Zambia
 | 1998 | 2003 | 2009 | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristics | N | % of total | % Stunted | % Wasted | % OW | N | % of total | % Stunted | % Wasted | % OW | N | % of total | % Stunted | % Wasted | % OW |
Type of place of residence | |||||||||||||||
 Urban | 418 | 14.3 | 29.2 | 6.2 | 8.6 | 1076 | 23.7 | 27.9 | 5.8 | 8.2 | 1182 | 23.2 | 27.3 | 6.3 | 5.4 |
 Rural | 2503 | 85.7 | 38.4 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 3462 | 76.3 | 36.8 | 7.2 | 4.7 | 3914 | 76.8 | 36.6 | 8.7 | 5.1 |
Source of drinking water | |||||||||||||||
 Piped | 747 | 25.6 | 32.9 | 6.7 | 9.8 | 1266 | 27.9 | 27.4 | 4.7 | 7.8 | 1392 | 27.3 | 29.8 | 7.4 | 5.5 |
 Well | 731 | 25.0 | 36.7 | 7.4 | 8.1 | 859 | 18.9 | 33.4 | 9.1 | 4.5 | 1372 | 26.9 | 34.5 | 8.1 | 5.0 |
 Surface water | 1360 | 46.6 | 39.9 | 8.2 | 6.4 | 2125 | 46.8 | 40.2 | 6.8 | 4.6 | 2143 | 42.1 | 37.8 | 8.7 | 4.8 |
 Rainwater | 33 | 1.1 | 36.4 | 3.0 | 6.1 | 288 | 6.3 | 30.2 | 9.4 | 5.9 | 189 | 3.7 | 30.2 | 7.4 | 9.0 |
Has electricity | |||||||||||||||
 No | 2668 | 91.3 | 38.7 | 7.6 | 7.1 | 3948 | 87.0 | 36.8 | 7.3 | 4.6 | 4302 | 84.4 | 36.6 | 8.7 | 5.0 |
 Yes | 244 | 8.4 | 19.3 | 6.6 | 14.3 | 589 | 13.0 | 20.7 | 3.7 | 11.7 | 792 | 15.5 | 23.0 | 4.8 | 6.6 |
Toilet type | |||||||||||||||
 Flush toilet | 171 | 5.9 | 24.0 | 7.0 | 12.9 | 421 | 9.3 | 19.2 | 4.0 | 11.9 | 484 | 9.5 | 23.3 | 5.0 | 8.1 |
 Pit toilet | 2219 | 76.0 | 36.0 | 7.2 | 8.2 | 3062 | 67.5 | 34.8 | 4.7 | 5.2 | 3320 | 65.1 | 33.6 | 5.9 | 5.1 |
 None | 517 | 17.7 | 46.0 | 9.5 | 4.1 | 1031 | 22.7 | 40.6 | 14.1 | 4.1 | 1255 | 24.6 | 40.9 | 14.8 | 4.5 |
Has car | |||||||||||||||
 No | 2826 | 96.7 | 37.6 | 7.7 | 7.4 | 4342 | 95.7 | 35.6 | 7.0 | 5.3 | 4924 | 96.6 | 35.0 | 8.2 | 5.1 |
 Yes | 87 | 3.0 | 20.7 | 3.4 | 16.1 | 187 | 4.1 | 14.4 | 2.7 | 11.2 | 166 | 3.3 | 19.9 | 4.2 | 7.8 |
Has television | |||||||||||||||
 No | 2603 | 89.1 | 39.0 | 7.8 | 7.2 | 3773 | 83.1 | 37.5 | 7.4 | 4.8 | 3961 | 77.7 | 37.8 | 9.0 | 5.1 |
 Yes | 306 | 10.5 | 20.6 | 5.6 | 12.1 | 759 | 16.7 | 21.1 | 3.8 | 9.5 | 1129 | 22.2 | 22.5 | 5.2 | 5.6 |
Literacy | |||||||||||||||
 Reads easily | 1746 | 59.8 | 33.3 | 6.0 | 8.5 | 2942 | 64.8 | 31.9 | 4.3 | 6.4 | 3061 | 60.1 | 31.5 | 5.1 | 5.5 |
 Reads with difficulty | 671 | 23.0 | 39.0 | 10.1 | 6.9 | 359 | 7.9 | 39.8 | 3.3 | 4.2 | 672 | 13.2 | 40.0 | 8.6 | 6.0 |
 Cannot read | 496 | 17.0 | 48.2 | 9.7 | 6.3 | 1228 | 27.1 | 40.1 | 13.9 | 4.0 | 1317 | 25.8 | 38.6 | 14.5 | 4.3 |
Highest educational level | |||||||||||||||
 No education | 335 | 11.5 | 47.2 | 9.0 | 5.4 | 826 | 18.2 | 39.1 | 17.1 | 3.9 | 1042 | 20.4 | 38.4 | 16.7 | 4.5 |
 Primary | 1863 | 63.8 | 39.8 | 8.3 | 7.8 | 2691 | 59.3 | 38.4 | 5.1 | 5.4 | 2908 | 57.1 | 37.0 | 6.3 | 4.8 |
 Secondary | 672 | 23.0 | 26.3 | 5.2 | 8.2 | 825 | 18.2 | 23.6 | 3.3 | 6.8 | 878 | 17.2 | 26.1 | 4.7 | 6.8 |
 Higher | 51 | 1.7 | 11.8 | 2.0 | 13.7 | 196 | 4.3 | 12.8 | 3.1 | 10.2 | 268 | 5.3 | 19.0 | 5.6 | 7.1 |
Head of household | |||||||||||||||
 Male | 2148 | 73.5 | 37.2 | 7.3 | 8.2 | 3435 | 75.7 | 35.0 | 6.9 | 5.6 | 3627 | 71.2 | 33.9 | 8.0 | 5.2 |
 Female | 773 | 26.5 | 36.7 | 8.3 | 6.2 | 1103 | 24.3 | 33.9 | 6.5 | 5.3 | 1469 | 28.8 | 35.9 | 8.4 | 5.3 |
Child age | |||||||||||||||
 0 | 1801 | 37.0 | 20.0 | 9.6 | 11.7 | 1145 | 25.2 | 29.0 | 6.1 | 7.7 | 1161 | 22.8 | 20.1 | 11.4 | 10.2 |
 1 | 1020 | 34.9 | 45.1 | 8.0 | 5.2 | 971 | 21.4 | 39.1 | 6.8 | 4.0 | 1002 | 19.7 | 45.0 | 7.4 | 5.7 |
 2 | 820 | 28.1 | 49.6 | 4.1 | 5.6 | 886 | 19.5 | 37.8 | 6.3 | 5.8 | 1058 | 20.8 | 43.2 | 6.8 | 3.8 |
 3 |  | 0.0 |  |  |  | 842 | 18.6 | 34.8 | 8.4 | 5.0 | 984 | 19.3 | 34.0 | 5.7 | 2.4 |
 4 |  | 0.0 |  |  |  | 694 | 15.3 | 33.9 | 6.8 | 4.6 | 891 | 17.5 | 31.4 | 9.0 | 2.8 |
Age of mother | |||||||||||||||
 Under 20 | 414 | 14.2 | 36.7 | 7.2 | 9.2 | 503 | 11.1 | 36.2 | 7.6 | 7.0 | 531 | 10.4 | 32.8 | 11.3 | 6.0 |
 20–29 | 1549 | 53.0 | 37.5 | 7.4 | 7.7 | 2296 | 50.6 | 34.0 | 6.6 | 5.1 | 2557 | 50.2 | 33.7 | 7.5 | 5.5 |
 30+ | 958 | 32.8 | 36.5 | 7.8 | 7.1 | 1739 | 38.3 | 35.2 | 6.9 | 5.8 | 2008 | 39.4 | 35.9 | 8.1 | 4.6 |
Employmenta | |||||||||||||||
 Not currently employed | 1414 | 48.4 | 37.8 | 7.3 | 7.9 | 1816 | 40.0 | 33.6 | 8.3 | 6.2 | 2283 | 44.8 | 35.1 | 10.6 | 5.5 |
 Currently employed | 1506 | 51.6 | 36.5 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 2718 | 59.9 | 35.5 | 5.8 | 5.2 | 2812 | 55.2 | 33.9 | 6.1 | 5.0 |
Household members | |||||||||||||||
 2–6 members | 1756 | 60.1 | 37.2 | 7.9 | 8.3 | 2880 | 63.5 | 34.2 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 3281 | 64.4 | 33.0 | 7.5 | 5.9 |
 7+ members | 1165 | 39.9 | 36.9 | 7.0 | 6.9 | 1658 | 36.5 | 35.6 | 8.0 | 4.6 | 1815 | 35.6 | 37.1 | 9.2 | 4.0 |
Wealth index | |||||||||||||||
 Poorest (1) | 702 | 24.0 | 46.6 | 8.8 | 5.0 | 1124 | 24.8 | 43.4 | 11.7 | 3.8 | 1479 | 29.0 | 42.1 | 13.5 | 5.0 |
 Poorer (2) | 647 | 22.1 | 41.0 | 10.0 | 7.4 | 898 | 19.8 | 37.5 | 6.9 | 3.8 | 931 | 18.3 | 37.7 | 6.7 | 4.4 |
 Middle (3) | 567 | 19.4 | 35.1 | 5.8 | 9.3 | 843 | 18.6 | 33.9 | 4.5 | 5.6 | 850 | 16.7 | 32.7 | 6.1 | 4.9 |
 Richer (4) | 555 | 19.0 | 33.5 | 5.6 | 8.1 | 736 | 16.2 | 32.3 | 5.7 | 5.6 | 844 | 16.6 | 30.0 | 6.4 | 5.1 |
 Richest (5) | 450 | 15.4 | 23.6 | 6.4 | 9.8 | 937 | 20.6 | 24.1 | 3.9 | 9.3 | 992 | 19.5 | 25.3 | 4.7 | 6.6 |
Sex of child | |||||||||||||||
 Male | 1453 | 49.7 | 42.3 | 8.0 | 8.0 | 2273 | 50.1 | 36.0 | 7.3 | 5.3 | 2598 | 51.0 | 37.0 | 8.9 | 5.3 |
 Female | 1468 | 50.3 | 31.9 | 7.1 | 7.4 | 2265 | 49.9 | 33.4 | 6.4 | 5.8 | 2498 | 49.0 | 31.8 | 7.3 | 5.1 |