Study and Reference | Published year | Sampling year | Country | Continent | Detection method | Number of samples | Confirmed C. difficile No | Sample type | Sample size of each category | C.d isolates of each category | Antibiotic susceptibility assay | Antibiotic resistance* | Toxin genes* | Toxinotype* | Ribotype* |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abdel-Glil et al. [41] | 2018 | 2014–2015 | Egypt | Africa | PCR | 150 | 0 | R-meat | 150 | 0 | − | − | − | − | − |
Kouassi et al. [42] | 2014 | 2009–2010 | Cote d'Ivoire | PCR | 395 | 49 | C-meat/Ham | 395 | 49 | DD | + | − | − | − | |
Esfandiari et al.-1 [43] | 2014 | 2012 | Iran | Asia | PCR | 211 | 9 | R-meat | 166 | 9 | − | − | + | − | + |
Soy | 14 | 0 | |||||||||||||
S-dishes | 17 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Veg | 14 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Esfandiari et al.-2 [44] | – | 2014 | Iran | PCR | 200 | 8 | R-meat | 200 | 8 | − | − | + | − | + | |
Esfandiari- et al.-3 [45] | 2013 | 2012–2013 | Iran | − | 211 | 22 | R-meat | 110 | 14 | − | − | − | − | − | |
Veg | 70 | 8 | |||||||||||||
Soy | 14 | 0 | |||||||||||||
S-dishes | 17 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Esfandiari et al.-4 [46] | 2014 | − | Iran | PCR | 100 | 12 | R-meat | 100 | 12 | − | − | + | − | − | |
Hasanzade et al.-1 [47] | 2013 | − | Iran | − | 240 | 25 | R-poultry | 240 | 25 | − | − | − | − | − | |
Hasanzadeh et al.-2 [48] | 2013 | − | Iran | − | 120 | 19 | R-poultry | 120 | 19 | − | − | − | − | − | |
Kheradmand et al. [49] | 2017 | 2014–2015 | Iran | PCR | 100 | 30 | R-meat | 100 | 30 | − | − | + | − | − | |
Knight et al. [50] | 2016 | 2013 | Australia | PCR | 300 | 76 | R-meat | 300 | 76 | − | − | − | − | − | |
Kochakkhani et al. [51] | 2017 | 2015 | Iran | RT-PCR | 60 | 8 | Salad | 60 | 8 | DD | + | − | − | − | |
Lee et al. [52] | 2018 | 2013–2014 | South Korea | − | 415 | 45 | R-meat | 266 | 20 | E-test | + | + | − | − | |
R-poultry | 149 | 25 | |||||||||||||
Lim et al. [53] | 2018 | 2015 | Australia | PCR | 300 | 30 | Veg | 300 | 30 | − | − | + | − | + | |
Nayebpour et al.[54] | 2018 | 2017 | Iran | PCR | 820 | 26 | Seafood | 820 | 26 | DD | + | + | − | − | |
Rahimi et al.-1 [55] | 2014 | 2012 | Iran | PCR | 660 | 13 | R-meat | 660 | 13 | DD | + | + | − | + | |
Rahimi et al.-2 [56] | 2015 | 2013 | Iran | PCR | 368 | 5 | Salad | 248 | 4 | DD | + | + | − | − | |
Milk/Dairy | 50 | 1 | |||||||||||||
S-dishes | 70 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Rahimi et al.-3 [57] | 2015 | 2012 | Iran | PCR | 570 | 6 | C-meat/Ham | 100 | 1 | − | − | + | − | − | |
R-meat | 105 | 5 | |||||||||||||
R-poultry | 150 | 0 | |||||||||||||
RTE meat | 170 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Razmyar et al. [58] | 2017 | 2014 | Iran | PCR | 65 | 10 | R-poultry | 65 | 10 | − | − | + | − | − | |
Rivas et al. [59] | 2019 | 2013–2014 | New Zealand | RT-PCR | 170 | 1 | RTE meat | 55 | 1 | E-test | + | + | − | + | |
Pet Food | 6 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Veg | 6 | 0 | |||||||||||||
R-meat | 55 | 0 | |||||||||||||
R-poultry | 16 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Milk/Dairy | 2 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Salad | 27 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Seafood | 3 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Wu et al. [60] | 2017 | 2015 | Taiwan | PCR | 302 | 67 | R-meat | 302 | 67 | E-test | − | + | − | + | |
Yamoudy et al. [61] | 2015 | 2013 | Iran | PCR | 106 | 6 | Salad | 106 | 6 | − | − | + | − | − | |
Zamani et al. [62] | 2019 | 2013–2014 | Iran | PCR | 30 | 2 | R-meat | 30 | 2 | − | − | − | − | − | |
Curry et al. [63] | 2012 | 2011–2012 | USA | Central/North America | − | 102 | 13 | R-meat | 102 | 13 | − | − | + | − | + |
Gomez et al. [64] | 2013 | 2009–2010 | Costa Rica | PCR | 200 | 4 | R-meat | 133 | 3 | E-test | + | + | − | + | |
R-poultry | 67 | 1 | |||||||||||||
Han et al. [65] | 2018 | 2014–2015 | USA | RT-PCR | 297 | 41 | Veg | 297 | 41 | MIC | + | + | − | + | |
Harvey et al.-1 [66] | 2011 | 2004–2009 | USA | PCR | 243 | 20 | R-meat | 221 | 20 | E-test | − | + | + | − | |
Harvey et al.-2 [67] | 2011 | 2010 | USA | PCR | 32 | 7 | R-poultry | 32 | 7 | E-test | + | + | + | − | |
Hawken et al.1 [68] | 2013 | – | Canada | PCR | 80 | 8 | R-meat | 80 | 8 | − | − | + | − | + | |
Hawken et al.-2 [69] | 2013 | – | Canada | PCR | 78 | 4 | R-meat | 78 | 4 | − | − | + | + | + | |
Houser et al. [70] | 2010 | – | USA | RT-PCR, PCR | 80 | 0 | R-meat | 36 | 0 | − | − | − | − | − | |
R-poultry | 17 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Milk/Dairy | 27 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Kalchayanand et al. [71] | 2013 | 2006–2007 | USA | PCR | 2427 | 18 | R-meat | 2427 | 18 | MIC | + | + | + | + | |
Kwon et al. [72] | 2016 | 2011–2012 | USA | PCR | 910 | 2 | S-dishes | 380 | 1 | − | − | + | − | + | |
Veg | 831 | 1 | |||||||||||||
R-meat | 308 | 0 | |||||||||||||
R-poultry | 142 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Milk/Dairy | 210 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Metcalf et al.-1 [73] | 2010 | 2007–2008 | Canada | PCR | 393 | 7 | R-meat | - | 4 | E-test | + | + | + | + | |
C-meat/Ham | - | 3 | |||||||||||||
Metcalf et al.-2 [74] | 2011 | 2010 | Canada | PCR | 119 | 5 | Seafood | 28 | 4 | E-test | + | + | + | + | |
C-seafood | 10 | 1 | |||||||||||||
Mooyottu et al. [75] | 2015 | – | USA | PCR | 300 | 2 | R-meat | 200 | 2 | E-test | + | + | − | − | |
 |  |  | R-poultry | 100 | 0 |  |  |  |  |  | |||||
Norman et al. [76] | 2014 | 2012 | USA | PCR | 67 | 3 | Seafood | 67 | 3 | E-test | + | + | + | − | |
Shaughnessy et al. [77] | 2018 | 2011–2012 | USA | PCR | 342 | 0 | R-meat | 256 | 0 | − | − | − | − | − | |
R-poultry | 109 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Songer et al. [28] | 2009 | 2007 | USA | PCR | 88 | 37 | R-meat | 65 | 26 | E-test | + | + | + | + | |
RTE meat | 23 | 11 | Â | ||||||||||||
Varshney et al. [78] | 2014 | 2011–2012 | USA | RT-PCR, PCR | 303 | 31 | R-meat | 150 | 14 | E-test | + | + | − | + | |
R-poultry | 153 | 17 | Â | ||||||||||||
Visser et al. [79] | 2012 | 2007 | Canada | PCR | 48 | 3 | R-meat | 48 | 3 | E-test | + | + | − | − | |
Weese et al.-1 [80] | 2009 | 2008 | Canada | PCR | 230 | 28 | R-meat | 230 | 28 | − | − | + | + | + | |
Weese et al.-2 [81] | 2010 | 2008–2009 | Canada | PCR | 203 | 26 | R-poultry | 203 | 26 | − | − | + | − | + | |
Agnoletti et al. [82] | 2019 | 2015–2017 | Italy | Europe | RT-PCR, PCR | 702 | 113 | Seafood | 702 | 113 | E-test | + | + | − | − |
Abercron et al. [31] | 2009 | 2008 | Sweden | − | 82 | 2 | R-meat | 65 | 2 | − | − | + | − | − | |
C-poultry | 4 | 0 | |||||||||||||
C-meat/Ham | 13 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Bakri et al. [83] | 2009 | 2008 | UK | PCR | 40 | 3 | Veg | 48 | 2 | E-test | + | + | − | + | |
Salad | 24 | 1 | |||||||||||||
de Boer et al. [27] | 2011 | 2008–2009 | Netherland | RT-PCR, PCR | 500 | 8 | R-meat | 243 | 1 | − | − | + | − | + | |
R-poultry | 257 | 7 | |||||||||||||
Eckert et al. [84] | 2013 | 2010–2011 | France | PCR | 104 | 3 | Salad | 60 | 2 | DD | + | − | − | + | |
Veg | 44 | 1 | |||||||||||||
Ersoz et al. [29] | 2018 | 2013–2014 | Turkey | − | 101 | 2 | C-meat/Ham | 25 | 2 | E-test | + | − | − | − | |
R-meat | 31 | 0 | |||||||||||||
R-poultry | 27 | 0 | |||||||||||||
C-poultry | 12 | 0 | |||||||||||||
RTE meat | 6 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Guran et al. [85] | 2015 | 2012–2013 | Turkey | PCR | 310 | 25 | R-poultry | 310 | 25 | − | − | + | − | − | |
Hampikyan et al. [86] | 2018 | – | Turkey | PCR | 555 | 161 | R-meat | 555 | 161 | E-test | + | + | − | + | |
Jobstl et al. [87] | 2010 | 2007–2008 | Austria | PCR | 120 | 3 | R-meat | 70 | 3 | E-test | + | + | − | + | |
Milk/Dairy | 50 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Pasquale et al. [36] | 2012 | 2010–2011 | Italy | PCR | 52 | 26 | Seafood | 52 | 26 | − | − | + | + | + | |
Primavilla et al. [88] | 2019 | 2016–2017 | Italy | RT-PCR | 350 | 2 | C-meat/Ham | 130 | 1 | E-test | + | + | + | + | |
Veg | 54 | 1 | |||||||||||||
S-dishes | 166 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Rodriguez et al.-1 [89] | 2014 | 2012 | Belgium | PCR | 240 | 8 | R-meat | 240 | 8 | E-test, DD | + | + | − | + | |
Rodriguez et al.-2 [90] | 2015 | 2013 | Belgium | PCR | 188 | 1 | − | − | 1 | − | − | + | − | + | |
Rodriguez et al.-3 [24] | 2013 | 2011–2012 | Belgium | PCR | 201 | 15 | R-meat | 201 | 15 | − | − | + | − | + | |
Romano et al. [91] | 2018 | 2009–2013 | Italy | PCR | 9 | 6 | Milk/Dairy | 6 | 6 | − | − | + | − | + | |
Salad | 3 | 3 | |||||||||||||
Troian et al. [35] | 2015 | 2012–2014 | Italy | PCR | 925 | 36 | Seafood | 925 | 36 | E-test | + | + | − | + | |
Valerija et al. [20] | 2018 | 2014–2017 | Slovenia | PCR | 154 | 28 | Veg | 154 | 28 | − | − | − | + | + | |
Pires et al. [92] | 2018 | 2017 | Brazil | South America | RT-PCR | 80 | 0 | R-meat | 80 | 0 | − | − | − | − | − |