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Table 1 The characteristics of the studies

From: Global prevalence of Clostridioides difficile in 17,148 food samples from 2009 to 2019: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Study and Reference

Published year

Sampling year

Country

Continent

Detection method

Number of samples

Confirmed C. difficile No

Sample type

Sample size of each category

C.d isolates of each category

Antibiotic susceptibility assay

Antibiotic resistance*

Toxin genes*

Toxinotype*

Ribotype*

Abdel-Glil et al. [41]

2018

2014–2015

Egypt

Africa

PCR

150

0

R-meat

150

0

−

−

−

−

−

Kouassi et al. [42]

2014

2009–2010

Cote d'Ivoire

PCR

395

49

C-meat/Ham

395

49

DD

+

−

−

−

Esfandiari et al.-1 [43]

2014

2012

Iran

Asia

PCR

211

9

R-meat

166

9

−

−

+

−

+

Soy

14

0

S-dishes

17

0

Veg

14

0

Esfandiari et al.-2 [44]

–

2014

Iran

PCR

200

8

R-meat

200

8

−

−

+

−

+

Esfandiari- et al.-3 [45]

2013

2012–2013

Iran

−

211

22

R-meat

110

14

−

−

−

−

−

Veg

70

8

Soy

14

0

S-dishes

17

0

Esfandiari et al.-4 [46]

2014

−

Iran

PCR

100

12

R-meat

100

12

−

−

+

−

−

Hasanzade et al.-1 [47]

2013

−

Iran

−

240

25

R-poultry

240

25

−

−

−

−

−

Hasanzadeh et al.-2 [48]

2013

−

Iran

−

120

19

R-poultry

120

19

−

−

−

−

−

Kheradmand et al. [49]

2017

2014–2015

Iran

PCR

100

30

R-meat

100

30

−

−

+

−

−

Knight et al. [50]

2016

2013

Australia

PCR

300

76

R-meat

300

76

−

−

−

−

−

Kochakkhani et al. [51]

2017

2015

Iran

RT-PCR

60

8

Salad

60

8

DD

+

−

−

−

Lee et al. [52]

2018

2013–2014

South Korea

−

415

45

R-meat

266

20

E-test

+

+

−

−

R-poultry

149

25

Lim et al. [53]

2018

2015

Australia

PCR

300

30

Veg

300

30

−

−

+

−

+

Nayebpour et al.[54]

2018

2017

Iran

PCR

820

26

Seafood

820

26

DD

+

+

−

−

Rahimi et al.-1 [55]

2014

2012

Iran

PCR

660

13

R-meat

660

13

DD

+

+

−

+

Rahimi et al.-2 [56]

2015

2013

Iran

PCR

368

5

Salad

248

4

DD

+

+

−

−

Milk/Dairy

50

1

S-dishes

70

0

Rahimi et al.-3 [57]

2015

2012

Iran

PCR

570

6

C-meat/Ham

100

1

−

−

+

−

−

R-meat

105

5

R-poultry

150

0

RTE meat

170

0

Razmyar et al. [58]

2017

2014

Iran

PCR

65

10

R-poultry

65

10

−

−

+

−

−

Rivas et al. [59]

2019

2013–2014

New Zealand

RT-PCR

170

1

RTE meat

55

1

E-test

+

+

−

+

Pet Food

6

0

Veg

6

0

R-meat

55

0

R-poultry

16

0

Milk/Dairy

2

0

Salad

27

0

Seafood

3

0

Wu et al. [60]

2017

2015

Taiwan

PCR

302

67

R-meat

302

67

E-test

−

+

−

+

Yamoudy et al. [61]

2015

2013

Iran

PCR

106

6

Salad

106

6

−

−

+

−

−

Zamani et al. [62]

2019

2013–2014

Iran

PCR

30

2

R-meat

30

2

−

−

−

−

−

Curry et al. [63]

2012

2011–2012

USA

Central/North America

−

102

13

R-meat

102

13

−

−

+

−

+

Gomez et al. [64]

2013

2009–2010

Costa Rica

PCR

200

4

R-meat

133

3

E-test

+

+

−

+

R-poultry

67

1

Han et al. [65]

2018

2014–2015

USA

RT-PCR

297

41

Veg

297

41

MIC

+

+

−

+

Harvey et al.-1 [66]

2011

2004–2009

USA

PCR

243

20

R-meat

221

20

E-test

−

+

+

−

Harvey et al.-2 [67]

2011

2010

USA

PCR

32

7

R-poultry

32

7

E-test

+

+

+

−

Hawken et al.1 [68]

2013

–

Canada

PCR

80

8

R-meat

80

8

−

−

+

−

+

Hawken et al.-2 [69]

2013

–

Canada

PCR

78

4

R-meat

78

4

−

−

+

+

+

Houser et al. [70]

2010

–

USA

RT-PCR, PCR

80

0

R-meat

36

0

−

−

−

−

−

R-poultry

17

0

Milk/Dairy

27

0

Kalchayanand et al. [71]

2013

2006–2007

USA

PCR

2427

18

R-meat

2427

18

MIC

+

+

+

+

Kwon et al. [72]

2016

2011–2012

USA

PCR

910

2

S-dishes

380

1

−

−

+

−

+

Veg

831

1

R-meat

308

0

R-poultry

142

0

Milk/Dairy

210

0

Metcalf et al.-1 [73]

2010

2007–2008

Canada

PCR

393

7

R-meat

-

4

E-test

+

+

+

+

C-meat/Ham

-

3

Metcalf et al.-2 [74]

2011

2010

Canada

PCR

119

5

Seafood

28

4

E-test

+

+

+

+

C-seafood

10

1

Mooyottu et al. [75]

2015

–

USA

PCR

300

2

R-meat

200

2

E-test

+

+

−

−

   

R-poultry

100

0

     

Norman et al. [76]

2014

2012

USA

PCR

67

3

Seafood

67

3

E-test

+

+

+

−

Shaughnessy et al. [77]

2018

2011–2012

USA

PCR

342

0

R-meat

256

0

−

−

−

−

−

R-poultry

109

0

Songer et al. [28]

2009

2007

USA

PCR

88

37

R-meat

65

26

E-test

+

+

+

+

RTE meat

23

11

 

Varshney et al. [78]

2014

2011–2012

USA

RT-PCR, PCR

303

31

R-meat

150

14

E-test

+

+

−

+

R-poultry

153

17

 

Visser et al. [79]

2012

2007

Canada

PCR

48

3

R-meat

48

3

E-test

+

+

−

−

Weese et al.-1 [80]

2009

2008

Canada

PCR

230

28

R-meat

230

28

−

−

+

+

+

Weese et al.-2 [81]

2010

2008–2009

Canada

PCR

203

26

R-poultry

203

26

−

−

+

−

+

Agnoletti et al. [82]

2019

2015–2017

Italy

Europe

RT-PCR, PCR

702

113

Seafood

702

113

E-test

+

+

−

−

Abercron et al. [31]

2009

2008

Sweden

−

82

2

R-meat

65

2

−

−

+

−

−

C-poultry

4

0

C-meat/Ham

13

0

Bakri et al. [83]

2009

2008

UK

PCR

40

3

Veg

48

2

E-test

+

+

−

+

Salad

24

1

de Boer et al. [27]

2011

2008–2009

Netherland

RT-PCR, PCR

500

8

R-meat

243

1

−

−

+

−

+

R-poultry

257

7

Eckert et al. [84]

2013

2010–2011

France

PCR

104

3

Salad

60

2

DD

+

−

−

+

Veg

44

1

Ersoz et al. [29]

2018

2013–2014

Turkey

−

101

2

C-meat/Ham

25

2

E-test

+

−

−

−

R-meat

31

0

R-poultry

27

0

C-poultry

12

0

RTE meat

6

0

Guran et al. [85]

2015

2012–2013

Turkey

PCR

310

25

R-poultry

310

25

−

−

+

−

−

Hampikyan et al. [86]

2018

–

Turkey

PCR

555

161

R-meat

555

161

E-test

+

+

−

+

Jobstl et al. [87]

2010

2007–2008

Austria

PCR

120

3

R-meat

70

3

E-test

+

+

−

+

Milk/Dairy

50

0

Pasquale et al. [36]

2012

2010–2011

Italy

PCR

52

26

Seafood

52

26

−

−

+

+

+

Primavilla et al. [88]

2019

2016–2017

Italy

RT-PCR

350

2

C-meat/Ham

130

1

E-test

+

+

+

+

Veg

54

1

S-dishes

166

0

Rodriguez et al.-1 [89]

2014

2012

Belgium

PCR

240

8

R-meat

240

8

E-test, DD

+

+

−

+

Rodriguez et al.-2 [90]

2015

2013

Belgium

PCR

188

1

−

−

1

−

−

+

−

+

Rodriguez et al.-3 [24]

2013

2011–2012

Belgium

PCR

201

15

R-meat

201

15

−

−

+

−

+

Romano et al. [91]

2018

2009–2013

Italy

PCR

9

6

Milk/Dairy

6

6

−

−

+

−

+

Salad

3

3

Troian et al. [35]

2015

2012–2014

Italy

PCR

925

36

Seafood

925

36

E-test

+

+

−

+

Valerija et al. [20]

2018

2014–2017

Slovenia

PCR

154

28

Veg

154

28

−

−

−

+

+

Pires et al. [92]

2018

2017

Brazil

South America

RT-PCR

80

0

R-meat

80

0

−

−

−

−

−

  1. RT-PCR Real-time PCR, C-meat/Ham Cooked meat/Hamburger, Veg. Vegetables, S-dishes Side dishes, Seafood Raw seafood/fish, R-meat Raw meat, RTE meat Ready-to-eat meat, R-poultry Poultry raw meat, C-poultry Cooked Poultry, C-seafood Cooked seafood/fish, DD Disk diffusion, MIC Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
  2. *The columns show the presence (+) or absence (−) of the assigned parameters in the studies. More details of the parameters are represented in other tables or figures of the article