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Table 2 Subgroup analysis of C. difficile prevalence based on the studies continent, the sampling year and the sample types

From: Global prevalence of Clostridioides difficile in 17,148 food samples from 2009 to 2019: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Subgroup

Number of studies

Prevalence (%)

Lower limit

Upper limit

Z-value

p value

I2

Based on the continent

Africa

2

4.8

0.8

24

− 3.2

0.001

85.6

Asia

20

7.4

4.6

11.7

− 9.9

0.000

93.8

Central/North America

20

5.1

3.1

8.4

− 10.9

0.000

94.1

Europe

17

6.8

3.9

11.3

− 9.1

0.000

95.6

South America

1

0.6

0.08

17.0

− 2.8

0.004

0.0

Overall

60

6.2

4.7

8.2

− 17.8

0.000

94.4

Test of heterogeneity between subgroups: Q-value:3.095, p value: 0.542

Based on the sampling year

TF1 (2004-the end of 2008)

8

5.1

2.3

10.9

− 6.9

0.000

97.0

TF2 (2009-the end of 2013)

23

5.7

3.6

9

− 11.2

0.000

93.6

TF3 (2014 ≤)

13

8.4

4.6

15.1

− 7.1

0.000

92.4

Overall

44

6.3

4.5

8.7

− 14.9

0.000

94.4

Test of heterogeneity between subgroups: Q-value: 1.372, p value: 0.504

Based on the sample types

C-meat/Ham

5

4.0

1.3

12.1

− 5.2

0.000

74.2

C-poultry

2

6.2

0.5

44.8

− 2.1

0.034

0.0

C-seafood

1

10.0

0.6

67.6

− 1.5

0.144

0.0

Milk/Dairy

6

4.5

1.2

15.7

− 4.3

0.000

77.6

Pet Food

1

7.1

0.2

72.8

− 1.4

0.157

0.0

R-meat

35

5.6

4.0

8.4

− 13.6

0.000

94.3

R-poultry

17

6.1

3.4

10.7

− 8.7

0.000

74.5

RTE meat

4

7.9

2.0

26.5

− 3.3

0.001

88.6

Salad

7

6.1

2.4

14.9

− 5.4

0.000

75.0

S-dishes

5

0.8

0.2

3.3

− 6.4

0.000

0.0

Seafood

7

10.3

4.6

21.4

− 4.9

0.000

96.4

Soy

2

3.3

0.3

29.1

− 2.7

0.008

0.0

Veg

10

5.7

2.6

11.8

− 6.9

0.000

77.7

Overall

102

5.7

4.5

7.3

− 21.6

0.000

90.2

Test of heterogeneity between subgroups: Q-value: 10.657, p value: 0.557