Table 3 Association of eating food away from home with NCD markers (CVD biomarkers) (n = 17)
No | Study | Country | Participants | Baseline characteristics | Exposure | Outcome | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Kant and Graubard [29] | USA | Men and women above 40 years age | 33% respondents reported eating ⩾ 3 restaurant prepared meals/week | Weekly frequency of eating foods prepared at restaurants | All-cause and coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease and diabetes (cardiometabolic) mortality and cardiometabolic biomarkers | In this study, the risks of mortality from all-causes or cardiometabolic diseases and frequency of eating restaurant prepared meals were unrelated |
2 | Du et al. [32] | USA | Men and women above 20 years age | 3.4% ate away from home ⩾ 2 times a day | Weekly frequency of eating foods away from home | Mortality status (cardiovascular and cancer deaths) | Frequent consumption of meals prepared away from home is significantly associated with increased risk of all-cause mortality. The association of eating meals prepared away from home with cardiovascular mortality and cancer mortality warrants additional investigation |
3 | Odegaard et al. [11] | Singapore | 45–74-year-old men and women | 5.6% had presence of diabetes mellitus | Frequency of eating foods away from home | CHD mortality and incident type 2 diabetes mellitus | Western-style fast-food intake is associated with increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus and of coronary heart disease mortality in an Eastern (Chinese Singaporean) population |
4 | Wang et al. [45] | China | 18–79-year-old men and women | 9% had presence of type 2 diabetes | Frequency of eating foods away from home | Type 2 diabetes | An excessive frequency of AFHs was likely to increase the prevalence of T2DM. Meanwhile, BMI partially mediates the effects of the frequency of AFHs on T2DM |
5 | Cahill et al. [24] | USA | 40–75-year-old men and 30–55-year-old women | 14.0% and 3.5% of women and 22.6% and 7.4% men reported fried-food consumption 4–6 and ⩾ 7 times/wk., respectively | Frequency of eating foods away from home | Type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease | Frequent fried-food consumption was significantly associated with risk of incident T2D and CAD (coronary artery disease). These associations were mediated in part by BMI, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia |
6 | Choi et al. [30] | South Korea | 20–69-year-old men and women | 61% ate away from home ⩾ 3 times per week | Frequency of eating foods away from home | BMI, total cholesterol, serum glucose, and insulin | When all confounding factors had been adjusted, the risk of hyperglycemia was significantly lower in participants who rarely dined out compared to participants who dined out one or two times a week. Hence, the frequency of dining out can be related to diabetes risk |
7 | Buscemi et al. [23] | Italy | 18–90-year-old men and women | 20% had presence of carotid atherosclerosis | Frequency of eating foods away from home | Carotid intima-media thickness (carotid atherosclerosis), fasting glucose, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol (HDL-c), triglycerides, uric acid and creatinine concentrations, and blood pressure | Age, gender distribution, BMI and prevalence of hypertension were not significantly different among the three groups, nor was the prevalence of clinically silent carotid atherosclerosis (p = 0.85) and the c-IMT (p = 0.16). In conclusion, this study shows that saturated fat consumption has no significant impact on carotid atherosclerosis in participants with no history of cardiovascular disease or diabetes |
8 | Demmler et al. [27] | Kenya | Men and women above 19 years age | 15% had presence of pre-diabetes | Frequency of eating foods away from home | BMI, blood pressure, and fasting blood glucose | This study suggests that buying food in supermarkets increases BMI, fasting blood glucose, and the probability of being overweight/obese, pre-diabetic, and suffering from the metabolic syndrome |
9 | Payab et al. [38] | Iran | 6–18-year-old boys and girls | 9.75% overall obesity, 7% overweight, 12.5% obese | Weekly frequency of junk food consumption | BMI, WC, and blood pressure | This study showed significant association between consumption of sweets and both general and abdominal obesity. There was no significant association between sweets consumption, sweetened beverages intake, junk foods (fast foods and salty snacks) and hypertension |
10 | Fulkerson et al. [22] | USA | 11–16-year-old adolescents and their parents | 65% ate away from home 3 to 6 times per week 25.6% Overweight/Obese among adolescents and 56.3% among parents | Weekly frequency of eating foods away from home | Chronic Disease biomarkers (percent body fat; cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, insulin, and blood pressure) | Study findings indicate that the odds of overweight/obesity are considerably greater when families report at least one weekly away-from-home dinner purchase. Mean percent body fat and CVD biomarkers (Mean percent body fat, metabolic risk cluster z-scores, and insulin levels) are also considerably greater with weekly purchases of family dinner from fast-food restaurants and takeout sources |
11 | Smith et al. [37] | Australia | 26–36-year-old men and women | 39.1% of men and 20.0% of women consumed takeaway food twice a week or more | Weekly frequency of takeaway food consumption | Cardiometabolic risk factors (blood pressure, triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and glucose) | Consuming takeaway food at least twice a week was associated with cardiometabolic risk factors in women but less so, in men. The effect of takeaway food consumption was attenuated when adjusted for obesity |
12 | Kant et al. [25] | USA | Men and women above 20 years age | 50% of adults reported ⩾ 3 AFH and 35% reported ⩾ 2 fast-food meals/week | Weekly frequency of eating foods away from home | Metabolic biomarkers (BMI, serum cholesterol, triglycerides, glycohemoglobin, and fasting glucose | Reporters of frequent AFH and fast-food meals had higher BMI and lower concentrations of HDL cholesterol; however, profiles of other biomarkers did not indicate higher metabolic risk. However, the serum concentrations of nutrients with mostly plant foods as sources declined with increasing AFH meal frequency |
13 | Dong et al. [28] | China | 7–17-year-old children and their parents | 43% ate away from home ⩾ 1 times per day | Frequency of eating foods away from home | Cardiometabolic disease (CMD) risk factors (blood pressure, glycated hemoglobin, and C-reactive protein) | Away-from-home eating was related to a higher WHtR in children but a lower WHtR in parents, likely due to different food choices and responses to urbanization between 2 generations in China |
14 | Wang et al. [31] | China | Men and women above 18 years age | 18% ate away from home > 0 to ⩾ 3 times in last 3 days | Frequency of eating foods away from home | BMI, WC, blood pressure, serum HDL cholesterol, serum TGs levels, and fasting plasma glucose | Middle-aged males were prone to get MetS when eating out frequently, while young females were more likely to reduce their risk of getting MetS when eating out very often. In particular, EAFH was associated with a lower risk of getting high serum triglycerides (TGs), abdominal adiposity, elevated blood pressure, and impaired fasting blood glucose for young females, while higher risk of high serum TGs, abdominal adiposity, elevated blood pressure, and impaired fasting blood glucose for middle-aged males (all p < 0.05) |
15 | Liu et al. [44] | China | Men and women above 18 years age | 18% ate away from home ⩾ 1 times in a given day The prevalence of HU is 15.4% in the total population (11.0% for female and 20.4% for male) | Frequency of eating foods away from home | Hyperuricemia (high serum uric acid levels) | In this study, we found that EAFH is associated with HU in China. After adjusting confounding factors and sensitivity analysis, the correlation still exists. Stratified by age, gender, and BMI, we further found one more important result: obesity (BMI ≥ 24), male, and middle-aged people who eat out are at higher risks of HU. In conclusion, EAFH is positively associated with the prevalence of HU |
16 | Chen et al. [46] | China | Men and women above 18 years age | The frequency of EAFH was 19.9%. The proportion of high serum uric acid was 26.4% in the total sample, 32.5% in men, and 21.2% in women | Frequency of eating foods away from home | Hyperuricemia (high serum uric acid levels) | The current study suggested a 1.27-fold OR of high serum uric acid in adults who had a habit of EAFH, compared with those without EAFH. A positive association was found in men, but not in women. Adults eating out during breakfast or at a restaurant were inclined to be associated with an increased OR of high serum uric acid. This study found that EAFH was associated with an increased odds ratio of high serum uric acid in men, but not in women |
17 | Cui et al. [34] | China | 18–79-year-old men and women | The frequency of FAFH was 12%. The proportion of high serum uric acid was 12% in the total sample | Frequency of eating foods away from home | Hyperuricemia (high serum uric acid levels) | Our findings indicated that eating out was associated with increased SUA levels and elevated hyperuricemia risk in rural China, especially in males. Moreover, the relationship was partly mediated by BMI |