Table 3 Unadjusted association between double burden of malnutrition (DBM) and maternal heights and other study covariates among mother–child pairs in Ethiopia, EDHS (2000–2016)

Maternal stature

Normal/tall (≥ 155 cm)

1.70 (1.53–1.89)

Ref

Short (145 to 154.9 cm)

1.72 (1.48–1.98)

1.05 (0.87–1.26)

Very short (< 145 cm)

5.70 (4.11–7.84)

3.76 (2.59–5.44)

Individual-level characteristics

Child factors

 Sex

  Male

1.96 (1.75–2.19)

Ref

  Female

1.61 (1.41–1.82)

0.81 (0.68–0.96)

 Age (months)

  < 6

1.14 (0.82–1.59)

0.52 (0.36–0.74)

  6–11

1.09 (0.78–1.52)

0.49 (0.35–0.71)

  12–23

1.16 (0.92–1.47)

0.53 (0.41–0.69)

  24–35

2.31 (1.95–2.72)

1.07 (0.87–1.32)

  36–59

2.16 (1.92–2.43)

Ref

 Birth order

  First born

1.37 (1.10–1.71)

0.61 (0.47–0.78)

  2–4

1.63 (1.43–1.86)

0.74 (0.61–0.89)

  5 or higher

2.17 (1.92–2.46)

Ref

 Birth interval

  < 33 months

1.47 (1.32–1.65)

Ref

  ≥ 33 months

2.50 (2.20–2.84)

1.74 (1.46–2.07)

 Size of child at birth

  Larger

1.79 (1.54–2.08)

Ref

  Average

1.78 (1.55–2.03)

1.01 (0.81–1.23)

  Small

1.81 (1.55–2.09)

1.03 (0.82–1.28)

 Currently breast-feeding

  Yes

1.29 (1.15–1.45)

Ref

  No

2.94 (2.6–3.30)

2.26 (1.90–2.69)

 Full vaccination

  Yes

2.43 (2.07–2.85)

Ref

  No

1.41 (1.26–1.59)

0.58 (0.47–0.71)

 Diarrhea

  Yes

1.43 (1.13–1.79)

0.77 (0.60–0.99)

  No

1.86 (1.70–2.04)

Ref

 Fever

  Yes

1.50 (1.23–1.83)

0.82 (0.65–1.02)

  No

1.85 (1.69–2.04)

Ref

 ARI

  Yes

2.23 (1.51–3.28)

1.28 (0.85–1.94)

  No

1.77 (1.62–1.92)

Ref

Maternal factors

 Mother’s age

  < 18

0.41 (0.05–2.88)

0.16 (0.02–1.12)

  18–24

0.97 (0.77–1.23)

0.37 (0.28–0.49)

  25–34

1.81 (1.61–2.03)

0.69 (0.58–0.84)

  ≥ 35

2.54 (2.21–2.93)

Ref

 Mother’s education

  No education

1.51 (1.35–1.67)

0.61 (0.51–0.73)

  Primary and above

2.49 (2.18–2.82)

Ref

 Mother’s occupation

  Not working

1.89 (1.69–2.12)

Ref

  Non-agriculture

2.82 (2.44–3.26)

1.49 (1.23–1.80)

  Agriculture

0.75 (0.58–0.96)

0.39 (0.30–0.53)

 Antenatal care (ANC) visit

  None

1.22 (1.03–1.43)

Ref

  1–3

1.96 (1.60–2.40)

1.62 (1.24–2.11)

  4–7

2.84 (2.38–3.38)

2.36 (1.84–3.02)

  8+

4.30 (3.09–5.96)

3.59 (2.43–5.29)

 Listening to radio

  Yes

2.37 (2.09–2.69)

Ref

  Not at all

1.50 (1.34–1.67)

0.63 (0.53–0.75)

 Watching television

  Yes

3.42 (2.98–3.91)

Ref

  Not at all

1.40 (1.26–1.55)

0.41 (0.34–0.49)

 Household factors

 Wealth index

  Poor

1.46 (1.25–1.70)

Ref

  Middle

0.91 (0.64–1.28)

0.61 (0.42–0.90)

  Rich

3.30 (2.92–3.73)

2.19 (1.77–2.70)

 Household size

  1–4

1.48 (1.23–1.78)

0.77 (0.62–0.94)

  ≥ 5

1.89 (1.72–2.07)

Ref

 Type of cooking fuel

  Clean fuels

1.70 (1.56–1.85)

Ref

  Solid fuels

6.01 (4.30–8.33)

0.27 (0.18–0.39)

 Toilet facility

  Improved

3.91 (3.41–4.48)

Ref

  Unimproved

1.96 (1.67–2.31)

0.52 (0.41–0.65)

  Open defecation

1.11 (0.96–1.27)

0.29 (0.23–0.35)

 Source of drinking water

  Improved

2.71 (2.43–3.01)

Ref

  Unimproved

1.17 (1.03–1.34)

0.43 (0.36–0.51)

 Household flooring

  Improved

5.05 (4.41–5.78)

3.88 (3.22–4.68)

  Unimproved

1.29 (1.17–1.44)

Ref

 Time to get a water source

  On-premise

5.07 (4.28–6.0)

Ref

  ≤ 30 min

1.44 (1.27–1.64)

0.28 (0.22–0.35)

  31–60 min

1.37 (1.10–1.71)

0.27 (0.19–0.36)

  > 60 min

1.49 (1.22–1.84)

0.29 (0.22–0.39)

Community-level characteristics

Residence

 Urban

4.74 (4.18–5.36)

4.07 (3.39–4.89)

 Rural

1.21 (1.08–1.35)

Ref

 Region

 Agrarian

1.56 (1.39–1.75)

Ref

 Pastoralist

1.30 (1.07–1.58)

0.79 (0.62–1.01)

 City administration

3.52 (3.02–4.10)

2.33 (1.88–2.89)

Survey year

 EDHS-2000

1.23 (1.02–1.49)

0.48 (0.38–0.61)

 EDHS-2005

1.75 (1.38–2.22)

0.68 (0.51–0.91)

 EDHS-2011

1.65 (1.41–1.92)

0.66 (0.53–0.82)

 EDHS-2016

2.49 (2.18–2.84)

Ref