Table 5 Analysis of maternal risk factors for low birthweight and macrosomia (N = 356)

Ethnicity

Dagomba

[Reference]

[Reference]

Frafra/Grusi

2.471

0.091 (1.327–4.603)

1.231

0.679 (0.460–3.298)

2.001

0.144 (0.789–5.078)

1.207

0.811 (0.258–5.642)

Others^††

0.174

0.004 (0.023–1.326)*

0.104

0.039 (0.011–0.995)*

0.886

0.876 (0.194–4.048)

0.795

0.821 (0.109–5.817)

Religion

Christianity

[Reference]

[Reference]

Islamism

0.440

0.023 (0.217–0.893)*

0.389

0.119 (0.118–1.277)

0.430

0.094 (0.160–1.155)

0.471

0.348 (0.098–2.265)

Household fuel

Firewood

[Reference]

[Reference]

Charcoal

1.466

0.164 (0.855–2.513)

0.891

0.802 (0.360–2.201)

2.094

0.125 (0.814–5.391)

0.801

0.766 (0.187–3.431)

Gas

0.893

0.809 (0.356–2.238)

1.470

0.670 (0.251–8.621)

5.468

0.001 (1.916–15.61)*

2.058

0.413 (0.366–11.58)

Wealth quintile

Poorest

0.467

0.052 (0.216–1.007)

0.717

0.591 (0.214–2.406)

1.200

0.845 (0.192–7.500)

2.352

0.480 (0.219–25.21)

Poorer

0.898

0.762 (0.447–1.803)

0.702

0.519 (0.239–2.060)

0.898

0.916 (0.121–6.647)

0.862

0.913 (0.059–12.38)

Middle

[Reference]

[Reference]

Richer

0.467

0.058 (0.213–1.026)

0.629

0.439 (0.195–2.034)

2.588

0.259 (0.497–13.48)

2.579

0.380 (0.311–21.41)

Richest

0.156

0.001 (0.050–0.486)*

0.295

0.175 (0.050–1.725)

8.426

0.006 (1.847–38.43)*

14.25

0.016 (1.638–23.91)*

Household size

 < 10 persons

[Reference]

[Reference]

 ≥ 10 persons

0.357

0.010 (0.163–0.785)*

0.681

0.517 (0. 212–2.181)

0.761

0.568 (0.298–1.943)

0.804

0.752 (0.208–3.110)

Weight gain

 < 6 kg

[Reference]

[Reference]

 ≥ 6 kg

0.499

0.011 (0.292–0.855)*

0.639

0.292 (0.279–1.468)

3.011

0.078 (0.884–10.26)

0.1667

0.066 (0.247–1.124)

Childbirth length

 ≤ 47.5 cm

[Reference]

[Reference]

 > 47.5 cm

0.268

 < 0.001 (0.152–0.473)*

0.271

0.003 (0.113–0.651)*

2.649

0.195 (0.607–11.57)

0.956

0.961 (0.158–5.782)

Number of ANC visits

 < 8 visits

[Reference]

[Reference]

 ≥ 8 visits

0.254

 < 0.001 (0.139–0.464)*

0.249

0.002 (0.103–0.602)*

5.200

0.001 (1.934–13.98)*

0.804

0.752 (0.208–3.110)

ITNs use

ITNs use

[Reference]

[Reference]

No ITNs use

2.788

 < 0.001 (1.658–4.688)*

0.931

0.863 (0.413–2.097)

0.952

0.905 (0.429–2.116)

0.970

0.962 (0.275–3.423)

Number of SP intake

None

2.111

0.152 (0.760–5.863)

4.066

0.157 (0.584–28.30)

1.759

0.619 (0.190–16.27)

0.765

0.862 (0.037–15.63)

1–3 doses

[Reference]

[Reference]

 > 3 doses

0.518

0.016 (0.303–0.886)*

1.470

0.368 (0.635–3.403)

2.676

0.038 (1.054–6.793)*

0.745

0.674 (0.190–2.926)

Gestational age at birth

Preterm

3.233

 < 0.001 (1.811–5.771)*

1.548

0.348 (0.621–3.858)

0.892

0.860 (0.250–3.181)

4.980

0.071 (0.873–28.41)

Normal term

[Reference]

[Reference]

Post-term

0.750

0.714 (0.161–3.495)

2.709

0.502 (0.148–49.71)

10.00

 < 0.001 (3.742–26.72)*

23.21

 < 0.001 (4.603–56.19)*

First-trimester Hb levels

Anaemia

8.585

 < 0.001 (4.404–16.74)*

3.226

0.007 (1.372–7.584)*

–

0.974 (–)

–

0.988 (–)

Normal Hb

[Reference]

[Reference]

Polycythaemia

–

0.997 (–)

–

1.000 (–)

5.852

0.001 (2.139–16.00)*

3.460

0.128 (0.700–17.09)

Second-trimester Hb levels

Anaemia

26.17

 < 0.001 (8.038–85.22)*

Dropped due to multicollinearity

0.165

0.001 (0.559–0.489)*

Dropped due to multicollinearity

Normal Hb

[Reference]

[Reference]

Polycythaemia

–

0.986 (–)

4.964

0.118 (0.667–36.92)

Third-trimester Hb levels

Anaemia

36.57

 < 0.001 (12.92–103.5)*

23.94

 < 0.001 (7.442–77.01)*

0.070

0.009 (0.009–0.521)

0.116

0.074 (0.011–1.230)

Normal Hb

[Reference]

[Reference]

Polycythaemia

–

0.993 (–)

–

0.999 (–)

2.859

0.238 (0.500–16.36)

0.485

0.559 (0.043–5.500)

Gestational diabetes

Without diabetes

[Reference]

[Reference]

With diabetes

–

0.982 (–)

–

0.996 (–)

2.767

0.035 (0.937–8.169)*

1.058

0.941 (0.236–4.738)

Hypertension status

Without HPT

[Reference]

[Reference]

With HPT

1.496

0.301 (0.697–3.211)

2.787

0.161 (0.665–11.67)

3.784

0.003 (1.566–9.146)*

2.581

0.158 (0.692–9.632)

Regression model

R²

0.477

p value

 < 0.001